Fundamentals of Nursing Research: evaluation of the evidence for nursing practice Essay

1.How do nurses and doctors interact in acute settings?In this convey, I would give c are to utilize ethnography. When comp ared to former(a) soft methods like phenomenology or grounded theory,ethnography is a systematic approach,which includes observing,detailing,describing,and analyzing the patterns of close(Leininger,1985).The key feature of ethnography as a qualitative look into methodology is that, it involves long term hit the books of a class by the inquiryer who becomes both the observer and offendicipant in the assort this is oftentimes termed as participant observation(Ellis 2010)They dont always take a participant role, roundtimes they are non-participant observers.Access to a root word for study may involve the police detective in seeking the help of a gate keeper(Ellis 2010). In this study a gate keeper trick be the HOD of acute care unit who allows to access the group of doctors and nurses and also to introduce them. However in that respect are appro ximately ethical issues this approach like an informed concent of colleagues(Ellis 2010) doodad sampling is apt for this study as the interrogationer pile non predict the situation.It might be very tight to get enough number of type at a stretch,observation during a issue of virtuoso calendar week with different staff at different shifts,would be great to get maximum number of sample of 40 .Data collection methods include observation and hearing .thither are mainly three large-minded types of development are usually saught by ethnographer ie the cultural demeanour(which means what members of the culture do) Culturalartifacts What members of the culture make or use Cultural speech(What slew say)This implies that ethnographers rely on a wide mannequin of information sources including observations indepth interviews records charts and other type of physical evidence(Diary letter) (Polit and Beck 2010)Observation is not unique to research and can be considered as part of every day life(Benner and Fian,2008) . Adler and Adler (1994) noted For as long as race subscribe been interested in studying the kindly and natural world around them observation has served as rudiments of source of human knowledge(P 377)Often the key objective of using observation is to check stand what mickle say that they do is the similar as what they truly do. As Hammersley (1990) suggested to rely on what people say ab emerge what they belive and do, without also observing what they do, is to neglect the complex relationship between attitudes demeanor( p 597)There are galore(postnominal) other reasons for using observation as the data collection method It helps us to inform about the influence of the physical environment Captures sense of the context of the and whole hearty settings in which people function Helps to illustrate the whole picture (Benner and Fian,2008). Some phenomena lent themselves well to observation(Polit and Hangler 1995) including characteris tic and conditions of individuals, vocal and no verbal communication behaviour, activities, skill attainment and performance and the characteristics of an environment.(Benner and Fian,2008)Observation can be considered as an approach ,in which the aspects of the phenomenon to be observed are operationally defined and decided in advance(Benner and Fian,2008)Its actually a skill to interview in qualitative research and this can be acquired through practice. (Ellis 2010) ethnographical interviews are unstructured- here i would like to use descriptive questions to ask participants about there experiences in there own language and are the backbone of ethnographic interviews(Polit and Beck, 2008) however study participants will not share much information with interviewers if they do not trust them close rapport with respondence provides access to richer information and to personal or intimate details. And audio taping equipment batteries tapes notepads and pens are essentials. Tape reco rded interviews should be listened to and check over for audibility and completeness soon after the interview is over.The analysis mainly based on the patterns in the behaviour and thoughts of the participants comparing one pattern against another and analyzing many patterns simultaneously(Felterman 1989) Spradlys 1979) /In an ethnographic study,research sequence is often used for data analysis .(Polit and Beck, 2008).On the other hand Spradely believes that language is the primary means that relates cultural meat in a culture. His sequence of 12 steps, which includes both data collection and data analysis, and the analysis part includes making a domain analysis which are units of cultural knowledge and making a taxonomic analysis asking contrast questions making componential analysis discovering cultural themes and the last step is writing the ethnography. (Polit and Beck 2008)On the contrary ,it is very challenging method when it compares to other numeric methods for there are no oecumenical rules for analyzing data( Polit and Beck 2008).2 Do weekly way sessions decrease try out levels of carers of people with Alzheimers disease?This study can better done by the experimental method, to be more special(prenominal) a randomize chastenled trial is apt for this particular study. The genuineness of true experiments give us greater confidence that they pull in the causal relationships under controlled settings of study (Polit andBeck,2008)Randomized controlled trials are able to answer a very specific question or related questions,because it uses specific manner ( Ellis 2010). RCT use techniques to find out the relationships between to variables. notwithstanding it holds direct control over many other factors that may effect the validity and reliability of the findings( Ellis 2010). hither Independent variables is weekly counseling sessions and dependent variable is stress levels of carers of people with Alzheimers disease.RCTs are characterized by the following properties Manipulation The experimenter does something to some represss or some type of interventions. Control The experimenter introduces controls into the study, including devising unplayful approximation of counter factual usually a controlled group that does not receive the intervention. Randomization The experimenter assigns subjects to a controlled or experimental conditions on a random basis. (Polit and Beck 2010)It was pointed out earlier that the RCT involves the random allocation of participants(Carer of people with Alzheimers disease) between experimental groups, whose members receive the treatment (in this study weekly counseling sessions) and control group who is devoid of or receive no intervention (in this study intervention means counseling sessions)I think a continuous 8 weeks counseling sessions that includes psychological and physical retreat of carers of Alzheimers unhurried can decrease stress levels of participants. In this particular study ,we should make sure that all stand the demands of inclusion criteria( Ellis 2010). In this study inclusion criteria involves carers who suffer from stress related to their work experience with Alzheimers patient.After sampling ,the researcher divides the entire sample into cardinal different groups so that each group portrays the connatural characters and even in terms of variables. ( Ellis 2010). queryers manipulate freelance variable by administrating the intervention to some subjects while withholding it from others. To illustrate participants in the experimental groups are subjected to counseling sessions through out the period where as those in the controlled group gets the usual care and treatment .Firstly, researcher have to do a pre examen that involves the observation of dependent variable before the counseling session. This design permits us to examine what changes in stress levels were caused by the 8 week counseling session because only some people were subjected t o it, providing an important coincidence (Polit and Beck 2010)There are mainly twain methods for data collection namely clinical or non clinical. here it is a non clinical method we can use questionnaires for the data collection.( Ellis 2010).A crucial part of good research design concerns making sure that the questionnaire design addresses the leases of the research.To put this another way somehow we need to ensure that the questions asked are the right ones.(iss.leeds.ac.uk home resources tutorial documents surveys). Reliability and validity are the two important aspect about the tool.The consistency in measuring is reliability .If the device produces the same or similar results when it uses under same circumstances,it is reliable. Whereas validity defined as, whether a tool measures or examines what it claims to measure or examine./(www.holah.karoo.net/reliabilityandvalidity.htm) offspring data should be collected in the same way and with the same figures for all the stu dy group to facilitate this where possible participants may remain unaware of the intervention being received(Gerrish and Lacey 2010).Here the researcher can use blinding in order to reduce the risk of biases.(http//www.ajronline.org/doi/full)It means the participants in the trial doesnt know which intervention is given to each individual.A comparison of both group after the counseling session can be done by a post test. Despite the benefits of experimental research this has somelimitations, first of all there are often constrains that make an experimental approach impractical or impossible(Polit and Beck 2008)3 What are the factors that influence womens smoking behaviour during pregnancy?This study has got social relevance. The grounded theory tradition which has its roots in sociology, seeks to describe and understand the social psychological and structural processes that move on in a social setting.(Polit and Beck 2008).Its procedures are not specific to a particular subject a rea or method of data collection.(Holloway and Wheeler,2002)Grounded Theory research is used to generate theories about practice and spirit from many different areas of health care(Ellis 2010) so in this study grounded theory is very apt because it deals with a practice or a habit and we can gain insights into how pregnant ladies changes there smoking behaviour during pregnancyOf the qualitative approaches to research grounded theory is perhaps the most systematic in its approach. Grounded theory systematically applies procedural steps to explore social phenomenon and derive a theory that explains peoples brain of those phenomenon .According to Strauss & Corbin, grounded theory emerges inductively from the research study.It undergoes very systematic process, data collection and analysis of data are the two major aspects of the study,so that the theory or the phenomena derives from the reciprocal relationship with each other.(Strauss & Corbin,1990)The starting point for grounded theory is that to appoint a homogeneous sample ,which means a sample portrays same kind of experience and with same process . A broader sample enables the researcher to draw on the experience of people to come to some conclusion of their experience (Ellis 2010)Samples for qualitative studies are generally much smaller than those used inquantitative studies.(www.qualitative-research.net Home Vol 11, No 3 (2010))The sampling in this study is theoretical sampling. I would like to use up the samples from antenatal clinics or GPs. The sample needs to be broad enough to enable the researcher to draw on the experiences enough people to come to some conclusion (Ellis 2010).But usually Grounded research typically done with 20 to 30 people.(Polit and Beck,2008).The sample size is determined by the theory being generated from the qualitative data.The data analysis can be done in two ways.Firstly, grounded theory may be used as a technique for analyzing data, which includes the process of constant comparison. The theory suggests that categories and properties are concepts that are identify by the researcher and evolve from the constant comparing of the data. (epress.anu.edu.au/info_systems/mobile_devices/ch04s03.html)Constant comparative analysis can be explained as the continuous comparison of data obtained from different participants so that the researcher analyses the difference or coincidence among them.(www.rangahau.co.nz/analysis/83/)Methods used in data collection include, interviews ,documentary evidence, case studies and participant observations. Here i would like to use interview as my data collection method.It would be so helpful when we can maintain the field notes throughout the process of data collection.Certain occurrences in the setting or ideas from participants that seem of resilient interest are recorded either during or after data collection.They remind the researcher of the events and interactions and incite thinking process.(Holloway and Whee ler,2004).As mentioned above the analysis of Grounded theory can be done by two major methods Firstly, the Glaser and Strausss Grounded theory method, and the second one is Strauss and Corbins approach.(Polit and Beck,2008). In this study i would like to use Strauss and Corbins approach. Main three types of coding includes Open axial and selective coding the out come of the Strauss and Corbins approach is a full conceptual description that explains how a basic social problem that emerged from the data is processed in asocial setting (Polit and Beck 2008).When compared to other ways of qualitative analysis, It provides researchers with a unique tool for theoretical development.On contrary to the conventional path Grounded Theory works inductive . A researcher affords the luxury of maintaining an open mind and allowing the data to inform the discovery of theory. Natural phenomena is lift out represented by the emergent findings avoiding preconceived ideas. (ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcon tent.cgi)4 What is the effect of hydrotherapy on the painfulness levels of people with osteo-arthritis?This study is Quantitive study. The true experimental designs are those in which the researcher has a great deal of control over the research situation.(Nieswiadomy,2008).There are three criteria for a true experimental design.Firstly, the researcher manipulates the experimental variable(s).Second one is at least one experimental and one comparison group are included in the study.Last criteria is that subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the comparison group. (Nieswiadomy,2008).Using manipulation, researcher consciously vary the self-supporting variable and observe its effect on dependent variable. Researcher manipulate the independent variable by administering an experimental treatment(intervention) to some subjects while withholding it from others. Here dependent variable is pain level an independent variable is hydrotherapy(Polit and Beck 2010)Randomiza tion or random assignment to study groups involves distribution of subject to either the experimental or control group on purely random or happen basis(Schneider and et al 2003)Sampling is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. It is subset of population elements. mere(a) random sampling can be used for this study. The members of the populationare numbered and a number of them are selected using random numbers without replacing them. With this method each population member has equal prospect of selection (Bowling 2009)Factors affecting sample size includes homogeneity of the population effect size cooperation and sensitivity of the measures. valued researchers need to pay careful attention to the number of participants needed to achieve statistical conclusion validity. A procedure known power analysis(Cohen 1988) can be used to estimate sample size needs (Polit and Beck 2008). The sample size, effect size and the alpha level are the three major factors which determine the power.It can be defined as the capability to figure-out the statistically significant difference when the null hypothesis is in fact false,which means, power is your ability to find a difference when a corporeal difference exists(psych.wisc.edu/henriques/power.html) walloping samples are no assurance of accuracy however. There can be practical constraints such as subject availability cooperation level of participants time and resources can limit the sample size so that many studies are based on relatively small samples (Polit and Beck 2008)Data collection in experimental study dependents on the exact questions being investigated. The data collected can include data about the independent variable and data on a phenomenon(Ellis 2010). Interviews,physical examination or biological samples are the main data collection methods, researcher can also collect data from existing records. (Ellis 2010).Here a personal interview using a structured que stionnaire can be used for the data collection.In this study we should do a pre test and post test. Pre test should be conducted before the intervention and a post test to assess the effect of hydrotherapyA major strength experiments is that they are practical in the real world it may be difficult if not impossible to conduct true experiments. In live era of healthcare consumerism patients are not always willing torelinquish control over there treatment condition. Another drawback of experiments is that unwillingness of people.( Gross and Fogg 2001)REFERENCESEllis P.(2010),Understanding research for nurse students,ExeterLearning matters Polit D. F and Beck C.T(2010),Essentials of Nursing ResearchAppraising Evidence for Nursing Practice,7th ednLippincott Williams & Wikins. Nieswiadomy RS(2008), Foundations of nursing research, 5TH edn new jersey Pearson Leininger(1985), Qualitative research methods in nursing W.B Sanders Company. Inc Holloway I & Wheeler(2002), Qualitative research in nursing, 2nd Edition, oxford Blackwell Science LTD Gerrish K and Lacey A (2010), The research process in nursing 6th edn, UK, Wiley-Blackwell Bowling A 2009, Research methods in Health examine health and health services, 3rd Edn, England, open university press Polit D.F and Beck C T(2008) Nursing researchGenerating and assessing evidence for nursing Practice 8th Edn Lippioncott, Williams & Wilkins Watson R, Mckenna H, Cowman S & Keady J (2008) Nursing research Designs and method Churchill Livingstone Elsevier Schneider Z,Elliot D,Lobiondo-Wood G & Haber J (2003) Nursing Research Methods critical appraisal and utilisation 2nd edn, Australia Elsevier Pty Ltd University of Leeds (iss.leeds.ac.uk home resources tutorial documents surveys). (No date)(Accessed on 25thof June,2013) University of Wisconsin-Madison(psych.wisc.edu/henriques/power.html) (no date)(Accessed on 25thof June,2013)13.University of Wollongong(ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi) (no date)(Accessed on 25thof Jun e,2013)Dr Leonie Pihama, Mori and Indigenous Analysis Ltd(www.rangahau.co.nz/analysis/83/)(no date)(accessed on 25thJune). nformation Systems Foundations Constructing and Criticising(epress.anu.edu.au/info_systems/mobile_devices/ch04s03.html) (no date)(Accessed on 25thof June,2013)16. M mason -(www.qualitative-research.net Home Vol 11, No 3 (2010)(2010)(Accessed on 25thof June,2013)